This briefing explores the threats the Kalash population in Pakistan face and the role which international actors can play. This piece was written by Matilde Calleri and edited by Joe Card.
Overview
Following the Taliban's takeover of Kabul in 2021, the Kalash people — Pakistan’s smallest ethnic minority — are facing an intensified existential threat. Residing primarily in the Chitral Valley near the Afghan border, their population has plummeted dramatically from an estimated 100,000 in the early 1900s to just 3,000 today. This steep decline stems from a combination of escalating religious persecution fuelled by the Pakistan Taliban (TTP), now strengthened and protected by the Afghan Taliban, as well environmental challenges and long-standing neglect from the Pakistani government.
The Kalash culture is notably distinct from Pakistan’s Islamic majority: their religion is polytheistic and animistic, meaning they believe in the divinity of nature. Social practices also diverge sharply as the Kalash community permits divorce for both men and women, and elopement is common. These differences have led to a significant historical subjugation of the culture’s rights. Pakistan’s National Commission for Human Rights (NCHR) recognises this oppression. Whilst the Kalash achieved a milestone in 2020 with representation in Pakistan’s legislative assembly, their exclusion from the national census reinforces their marginalised status. This also excludes them from essential disaster relief programs and infrastructure investments. Climate change poses a severe challenge to the Kalash community, exacerbating their vulnerability. The Pakistan Meteorological Department reported a 0.9°C rise in the country’s mean annual temperature, and the community is increasingly affected by intensified flooding and deforestation. For the Kalash, whose agricultural economy and spiritual beliefs revolve around nature, these environmental disruptions are catastrophic.
The disregard for their rights is also evident in the loss of ownership claims over Silver Oak forests, a legacy granted by the Mehtar-e-Chitral several centuries ago. Despite constitutional guarantees under Article 23 which provides every citizen the right to own property, these protections have not been fully enforced for the Kalash. Reports of inadequate compensation for lands acquired by government entities highlight the lack of institutional support. Consequently, they remain disproportionately affected by climate-related crises, with little to no state support for recovery or adaptation.
Religious conversion poses a critical challenge to the preservation of Kalash identity. Over time, societal and economic pressures have contributed to conversions to Islam, reducing their population. While the Pakistani government officially denies instances of forced conversion, such as the 2016 dispute over whether a Kalash girl was coerced into converting, certain cases illustrate the complexities surrounding this issue. Education further contributes to this dynamic as Kalash children are taught an Islamic curriculum that overlooks their unique cultural and religious traditions. The NCHR has also raised concerns over disruptions to traditional practices, noting that one of the most important festivals for the culture, Ratnat, has not been celebrated for over a decade due to threats from religious extremists.
The challenges facing the Kalash have expanded from being primarily domestic to having significant geopolitical dimensions. The Pakistani Taliban (TTP) publicly targeted the Kalash in 2014, issuing threats of violence if they did not convert to Islam. Although the Pakistani military successfully pushed back the TTP at that time, the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in 2021 has reinvigorated these threats. In 2023, over 500 militants reportedly crossed the Afghan border targeting the Chitral Valley in an effort to establish control.
These security challenges carry significant consequences for the economic stability of the Kalash, particularly in relation to tourism. Although tourism was once seen as a potential threat to Kalash identity due to modernisation pressures, it has also been instrumental in raising awareness about this minority community. In May 2017, UNESCO recognised the Kalash practice of Suri Jagek, a traditional astronomical method, by including it on its List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding. However, without sustained attention and support, escalating militant activity threatens not only the safety of the Kalash but also their primary source of income.
International implications
Pakistan’s international agreements provide a critical framework through which international organisations can address the threats faced by the Kalash people. For instance, Pakistan’s commitment to the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) means that it needs to respect the convention’s policies on education, cultural preservation, and broader human rights protections.
The exclusion of the Kalash religious and cultural traditions from the curriculum constitutes a clear violation of Article 30 of the UNCRC. This article guarantees minority children the right to learn about and practice their own culture, language, and religion. The UN has therefore the power to pressure Pakistan to ensure the preservation of the Kalash culture through education.
In addition, Pakistan’s National Heritage Division, in collaboration with UNESCO, is working to recognise over 40 Kalash cultural practices and symbols as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage list. This initiative, which highlights the urgency of preserving Kalash culture, equally requires the support of international organisations. Global backing, particularly through pressure on the Pakistani government, is crucial to ensure the protection and preservation of the Kalash heritage. Such international interventions would not only raise awareness amongst NGOs and human rights groups, but also place significant pressure on Pakistan to further address the marginalisation of the Kalash.
The European Union could also influence Pakistan’s government. As a beneficiary of the European Union's GSP+ scheme, Pakistan is required to adhere to 27 international conventions, including those on human rights, cultural rights, and non-discrimination. The treatment of the Kalash people could be viewed as violations of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights. Moreover, the GSP+ scheme provides Pakistan with significant economic benefits through preferential trade access to the EU. Any documented and credible evidence of non-compliance with its human rights obligations could prompt the EU to review or suspend these benefits. Such action would not only have economic repercussions for Pakistan but could also draw international attention to the plight of the Kalash.
Furthermore, the increasing threat posed by the TTP in Chitral is not merely a domestic security issue, but a geopolitical one. Chitral’s location near the Wakhan Corridor, which borders China’s Xinjiang province, is crucial for the TTP’s operational goals. Islamist groups — including the TTP — oppose China's treatment of its Uyghur Muslim population, and this region provides a route to carry out attacks in Xinjiang. Given the TTP’s current base in Afghanistan, controlling Chitral would allow them to open a new front on the Afghan- China border that could disrupt regional stability.
Additionally, targeting Chitral fits into the TTP’s broader strategy of destabilising Pakistan. For instance, high-profile attacks such as the 2021 Dasu hydropower project bombing, which killed nine Chinese nationals, highlight the TTP’s capability and intent to undermine Sino-Pakistani cooperation. Although the TTP denied responsibility for this attack, the Pakistan government confirmed TTP responsibility.
Finally, China’s relationship with Afghanistan and Pakistan is of crucial economic importance. In fact, both countries play a key role in China's westward expansion of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), connecting Central Asia through the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) and the Gwadar Port. Although The Taliban regime in Afghanistan has endorsed the BRI and seeks to deepen economic ties with China, the TTP’s activities threaten these goals, potentially delaying investments and disrupting regional cooperation. Reducing the TTP's power is therefore not only in the interest of the Kalash, but supports international security and economic expansion.
Final thoughts
Several potential outcomes, as well as long-term consequences, can be foreseen based on the action — or inaction — of national and international actors.
If the federal and provincial governments of Pakistan, in collaboration with UNESCO and other international organisations, take swift and decisive action to safeguard Kalash culture, there is considerable hope for the preservation of their identity. For instance, integrating Kalash traditions and history into the educational curriculum is essential for future cultural continuity. Moreover, the introduction of this curriculum could promote a
broader understanding of the Kalash people in the national consciousness, reducing prejudice and discrimination.
Another essential step would be the recognition of Kalash religion and culture in national databases. Official acknowledgment would not only lend legitimacy to their cultural heritage but would also provide access to state resources such as health services, disaster relief, and legal protections. International pressure, particularly leveraging Pakistan's commitments under frameworks like the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), could push the government to fulfil its obligations.
Pakistan’s obligations under international agreements such as the EU’s GSP+ scheme, could potentially offer another leverage point. The Pakistani government could be held accountable, particularly in cases where the Kalash community has been deprived of land and economic compensation. The implementation of proactive measures could provide a model for how Pakistan handles its various minority groups.
However, failure to take immediate action could lead to devastating long-term consequences for the Kalash people. History has shown that marginalised communities, when faced with such compounded challenges, may either assimilate under pressure or face cultural extinction.
The TTP, emboldened by the Taliban’s return to power in Afghanistan, poses a growing danger to the Kalash. While Pakistan is taking military measures to counter the TTP, the absence of a permanent military base or stable security presence in the Chitral Valley makes it difficult to guarantee the safety of the Kalash.
The situation is further complicated by the increasing geostrategic importance of the region. The TTP and other militant factions may use the Chitral Valley as a launching pad for broader operations targeting Xinjiang, a region that is home to China’s Uyghur Muslim minority. These operations could potentially disrupt the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), an important part of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
This, in turn, could have cascading affects on the Kalash, who depend on stable regional security for both economic and cultural preservation. China could leverage its economic partnership with Afghanistan, tied to its Belt and Road Initiative, to reduce the support that the Taliban provides to extremist groups like the TTP. However, whether China would prioritise the protection of a small religious minority, like the Kalash, over broader geopolitical and economic interests remains uncertain.
The Kalash people face a precarious future, one that is shaped by both domestic neglect and external threats. The future of the Kalash depends on the recognition of their rights and the collective will of both national and international actors to support their cultural survival.
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